Masculinity and…

There is consistent evidence that stereotypical masculine attitudes and norms shape men’s and boys’ behaviour in harmful ways. 

  • Men who endorse traditional definitions of manhood are more likely to suffer harm to themselves.
  • Men who endorse traditional definitions of manhood are more likely to do harm to others.

The following notes summarise the evidence of associations between men’s conformity to stereotypical masculine norms and a range of outcomes, including:

This collection concentrates on quantitative studies, although a wide range of qualitative studies also document associations between conformity to stereotypical masculine norms and various outcomes.

For further commentaries, particularly on Australian ‘Man Box’ data, see the following. 

Additions are welcome.

Help-seeking

  • A 2025 meta-analysis of 35 studies finds that higher endorsement of traditional masculinity is correlated with negative attitudes toward psychological help-seeking, and higher self-stigma about psychological help-seeking (Üzümçeker, 2025).
  • A 2017 meta-analysis of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes found that conformity to masculine norms was moderately and unfavorably related to psychological help seeking (Wong, Ho, Wang, & Miller, 2017).
  • A 2016 systematic review on the role of masculinity in men’s help-seeking for depression found that men with greater levels of support for traditional masculine norms used more maladaptive coping skills, had more negative attitudes about seeking help for depression, and were less likely to seek help (Seidler, Dawes, Rice, Oliffe, & Dhillon, 2016)
  • A 2015 systematic review of the factors associated with delays in medical and psychological help-seeking among men finds that “adherence to traditional masculinity norms reduces men’s willingness to seek help” (Yousaf, Grunfeld, & Hunter, 2015).

Suicide

  • In a qualitative metasynthesis and systematic review of 20 years of narratives both from men who are suicidal and from people who are bereaved by male suicide, there were associations between cultural norms of masculinity and suicide risk in 96% of studies (Bennett et al., 2023).
  • Traditional masculinity is an important predictor of suicidal thoughts in males. In a US cross-sectional study of 2,431 young adults, “Traditional masculinity was associated with suicidal ideation, second only in strength to depression, including when controlling for other risk factors” (Coleman, 2015).
  • Another study finds that men who endorse traditional masculinity, especially self-reliance, are more likely to have suicidal thoughts (Pirkis et al. 2017). In an Australian study among 13,884 men, after controlling for other key predictors of suicidal thinking, one characteristic of dominant masculinity – self-reliance – stood out as a risk factor for suicidal thinking.
  • A study among young Irish men found they experienced high levels of emotional pain but had problems identifying symptoms and disclosing distress. Prevailing norms of masculinity discouraged disclosing distress and seeking help. So they opted for suicide (Cleary, 2012).
  • In an Australian survey of 1,000 men aged 18 to 30 in 2018, the ‘Man Box’ survey, young men with higher levels of conformity to stereotypical masculine norms were twice as likely as other young men to have considered suicide. They were more likely to report symptoms associated with poor mental health such as reporting ‘feeling down, depresssed, or hopeless’, and twice as likely to report having thoughts of suicide in the past two weeks (The Men’s Project & Flood, 2018, pp. 26-27).
  • In a repeat of this ‘Man Box’ survey in 2024, again, men with higher levels of conformity to stereotypical masculine norms were considerably more likely than other men to have considered suicide (The Men’s Project & Flood, 2024, p. 90).
  • A study among 829 Australian boys and young men found that conforming to some masculine norms is bad for the mental health of some adolescent males, placing them at greater risk of suicidal ideation. Higher conformity to norm of self-reliance was associated with suicidal thoughts (King et al., 2020).
  • A national US study found that males with ‘high traditional masculinity’ (emotional restriction, competitiveness, aggression, etc.) were 2.4 as likely to die by suicide than non-HTM men. This is the first study to examine the influence of stereotypical masculine norms on actual suicide deaths (Coleman, Feigelman, & Rosen, 2020).

Mental health

  • A 2017 meta-analysis of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes found that conformity to masculine norms was moderately and unfavorably related with mental health (Wong et al., 2017). As it concludes, “conformity to masculine norms was positively associated with negative mental health as well as inversely related to positive mental health and psychological help seeking” (Wong et al., 2017, p. 88).
    • This meta-analysis notes that it matters which masculine norms are involved: “Conformity to the specific masculine norms of self-reliance, power over women, and playboy were unfavorably, robustly, and consistently related to mental health-related outcomes, whereas conformity to the masculine norm of primacy of work was not significantly related to any mental health-related outcome” (Wong et al., 2017, p. 80).

Fathering / Parenting

Men’s involvement in parenting is constrained in by traditional masculine norms emphasising breadwinning, self-reliance, stoicism, dominance. Men with more traditional masculine attitudes are less likely to be involved in positive fathering and more likely to show negative fathering behaviours, from research in the US, Canada, the UK, and France (Shafer, Petts, & Scheibling, 2021, p. 439). For example:

  • A US study found that fathers who agree more strongly with traditional masculine norms (emotional control, risk taking, self-reliance, power over women, etc.) were less involved in parenting and more likely to use harsh discipline than other fathers (Petts, Shafer, & Essig, 2018).
  • A New Zealand study found that fathers with more sexist attitudes show less responsive parenting towards both daughters and sons. Fathers with higher levels of hostile sexism expressed less warmth, were less engaged with their child, were less sensitive to their child’s needs, and were more intrusive or controlling (Overall et al., 2023).
  • In a US study among men with children under five, men who agreed with a measure of traditional masculinity (that “men should only go to the doctor when they are sick”) had lower levels of parenting involvement (Adler, 2023).

Risky driving

There is evidence that men who agree more strongly with stereotypical norms of masculinity (that men should take risks, be tough, and so on) are more likely to be involved in risky driving:

  • The ‘Man Box’ survey of young Australian men aged 18-30 showed an association between conformity to traditional masculinity and risky driving (as indicated by having been in a traffic accident in the last year). Over one third (38%) of young men with a high degree of conformity to Man Box attitudes had been in a traffic accident in the last year, compared to 11% of those with low conformity (The Men’s Project & Flood, 2018).
  • Surveys in other countries on young men’s attitudes to masculinity find similar findings: 23% versus 9% in the USA, and 28% and 7% in the UK (The Men’s Project & Flood, 2018, p. 33).
  • A German study finds that identification with a ‘macho’ personality is related to aggressive driving behaviour (Krahé & Fenske, 2002). Among male motorists, those who scored more highly on a measure of hypermasculinity were more likely than others to report aggressive driving. Also, more ‘macho’ men gave greater importance to speed and sportiness of a car and less importance to safety aspects than non-macho men.
  • In a French study of riders of heavy motorcycles, there were higher levels of risk-taking and violations of traffic rules among those with stronger agreement with masculinity (Coquelet, Granie, & Griffet, 2018).

Alcohol and drug use

  • A meta-analysis of conformity to masculine norms and its association with drinking behaviors and alcohol-related consequences among adult men found that conformity to masculine norms is modestly associated with drinking behaviors and alcohol-related consequences (Zamboanga, Newins, Ford, & Perrotte, 2024)
  • A longitudinal study among Australian young adult men finds that adherence to specific masculine norms (playboy and risk-taking) was associated with hazardous use of alcohol, cannabis, and hard drugs at two-year follow-up (Teese, Van Doorn, & Gill, 2023).
  • In an Australian survey of 1,000 men aged 18 to 30 in 2024, men with higher levels of endorsement of stereotypical masculine norms also were more likely to drink alcohol at risky levels (The Men’s Project & Flood, 2024, p. 97). On the other hand, there was not a linear relationship between their endorsement of stereotypical masculine norms and their levels of illicit drug use. Men who endorsed stereotypical masculine norms were significantly more likely to drive a car or go swimming while intoxicated than other men (The Men’s Project & Flood, 2024, p. 101).

Workplace risk-taking

Men’s occupational deaths and injuries are shaped by masculinity - by traditional masculine norms of risk-taking, stoicism, independence, and so on:

  • In a study in two male-dominated workplaces, men who agreed with traditional masculine norms were more likely than other men to violate safety procedures and to not report safety problems to supervisors (Nielsen et al., 2015).
    • This study also tested for the influence of workers’ own masculinity. Findings depended on the trait. Men were more likely to report safety oversights if they had some masculine traits such as assertiveness and leadership qualities, but less likely if they had other masculine traits such as being athletic, risk-taking and dominating.
  • Masculine norms (e.g. about being a ‘tough’ worker) also influence men’s decisions about returning to work. They return ‘too early’, don’t report safety issues and accidents, don’t disclose post-injury challenges, and don’t ask for workplace support  (Stergiou-Kita, Mansfield, Colantonio, Moody, & Mantis, 2016).

Violence perpetration

Violence-supportive and patriarchal masculine attitudes are a consistent predictor of men’s perpetration of domestic, family, and sexual violence. 

  • Regarding the perpetration of intimate partner violence (IPV), a systematic review of measures on gender, power, and violence, assessing 23 studies, concluded that “Measures inclusive of acceptance of violence against women or beliefs about men’s sexual entitlement, followed by scales that measured respondents’ views on gender roles/norms, were most consistently associated with IPV perpetration.” (McCarthy, Mehta, & Haberland, 2018, p. 1).
  • Regarding the perpetration of sexual aggression, a systematic review of studies on male-perpetrated SA against women, of 95 articles published between 1990-2020, concluded that there is “broad support for the association between hostile masculinity and sexual aggression, including evidence for the theoretical framework posited by the confluence model of sexual aggression” (Ray & Parkhill, 2021).
  • In a meta-analysis of studies over 2000-2021 of sexual assault perpetration by male university students in the US, based on 25 studies, the strongest risk markers for perpetration included measures directly related to hegemonic masculinity, including peer approval of sexual assault, rape myth acceptance, hostility towards women, and sexist beliefs (Spencer et al., 2022).
  • In a systematic review of risk factors for violence against women in high-prevalence settings, based on 241 studies across multiple countries, patriarchal social norms and masculine ideals (as well as attitudes normalising violence) were influential contributors to violence against women (Mannell et al., 2022).

(Note: This material is excerpted from the State of Knowledge Report on Violence Perpetration (Flood, Brown, Dembele, & Mills, 2023), free here.)

References

Adler, M. A. (2023). Active fathers in the United States: Caught between de-gendering care and caring masculinities. Journal of Family Issues, 44(5), 1177-1196. 

Bennett, S., Zortea, T., Dickson, A., & Richardson, C. (2023). Male suicide risk and recovery factors: a systematic review and qualitative meta-synthesis of two decades of research. Psychological bulletin. 

Cleary, A. (2012). Suicidal action, emotional expression, and the performance of masculinities. Social Science & Medicine, 74(4), 498-505. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.08.002

Coleman, D. (2015). Traditional Masculinity as a Risk Factor for Suicidal Ideation: Cross-Sectional and Prospective Evidence from a Study of Young Adults. Archives of Suicide Research, 19(3), 366-384. https://doi.org/10.1080/13811118.2014.957453

Coleman, D., Feigelman, W., & Rosen, Z. (2020). Association of high traditional masculinity and risk of suicide death: secondary analysis of the Add Health Study. JAMA psychiatry. 

Coquelet, C., Granie, M.-A., & Griffet, J. (2018). Conformity to gender stereotypes, motives for riding and aberrant behaviors of French motorcycle riders. Journal of Risk Research, 1-12. 

Flood, M., Brown, C., Dembele, L., & Mills, K. (2023). Who uses domestic, family, and sexual violence, how, and why? The State of Knowledge Report on Violence Perpetration.

King, T. L., Shields, M., Sojo, V., Daraganova, G., Currier, D., O’Neil, A., King, K., & Milner, A. (2020). Expressions of masculinity and associations with suicidal ideation among young males. BMC psychiatry, 20, 1-10.

Krahé, B., & Fenske, I. (2002). Predicting aggressive driving behavior: The role of macho personality, age, and power of car. Aggressive Behavior: Official Journal of the International Society for Research on Aggression, 28(1), 21-29. 

Mannell, J., Lowe, H., Brown, L., Mukerji, R., Devakumar, D., Gram, L., Jansen, H. A. F. M., Minckas, N., Osrin, D., Prost, A., Shannon, G., & Vyas, S. (2022). Risk factors for violence against women in high-prevalence settings: a mixed-methods systematic review and meta-synthesis. BMJ Global Health, 7(3), e007704. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjgh-2021-007704

McCarthy, K. J., Mehta, R., & Haberland, N. A. (2018). Gender, power, and violence: A systematic review of measures and their association with male perpetration of IPV. PLoS ONE, 13(11), e0207091. 

Nielsen, K. J., Hansen, C. D., Bloksgaard, L., Christensen, A.-D., Jensen, S. Q., & Kyed, M. (2015). The impact of masculinity on safety oversights, safety priority and safety violations in two male-dominated occupations. Safety Science, 76, 82-89. 

Overall, N. C., Cross, E. J., Low, R. S. T., McRae, C. S., Henderson, A. M. E., & Chang, V. T. (2023). Fathers’ and Mothers’ Sexism Predict Less Responsive Parenting Behavior During Family Interactions. Social Psychological and Personality Science, 0(0), 19485506231200296. https://doi.org/10.1177/19485506231200296

Petts, R. J., Shafer, K. M., & Essig, L. (2018). Does Adherence to Masculine Norms Shape Fathering Behavior? Journal of Marriage and Family, 80(3), 704-720. 

Pirkis, J., Spittal, M. J., Keogh, L., Mousaferiadis, T., & Currier, D. (2017). Masculinity and suicidal thinking [journal article]. Social psychiatry and psychiatric epidemiology, 52(3), 319-327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00127-016-1324-2

Ray, T. N., & Parkhill, M. R. (2021). Components of Hostile Masculinity and Their Associations With Male-Perpetrated Sexual Aggression Toward Women: A Systematic Review. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 15248380211030224. 

Seidler, Z. E., Dawes, A. J., Rice, S. M., Oliffe, J. L., & Dhillon, H. M. (2016). The role of masculinity in men's help-seeking for depression: a systematic review. Clinical psychology review, 49, 106-118. 

Shafer, K., Petts, R. J., & Scheibling, C. (2021). Variation in Masculinities and Fathering Behaviors: A Cross-National Comparison of the United States and Canada. Sex Roles, 84(7), 439-453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-020-01177-3

Spencer, C. M., Rivas-Koehl, M., Astle, S., Toews, M. L., Anders, K. M., & McAllister, P. (2022). Risk Markers for Male Perpetration of Sexual Assault on College Campuses: A Meta-Analysis. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 0(0), 15248380221097437. https://doi.org/10.1177/15248380221097437

Stergiou-Kita, M., Mansfield, E., Colantonio, A., Moody, J., & Mantis, S. (2016). What’s gender got to do with it? Examining masculinities, health and safety and return to work in male dominated skilled trades. Work, 54(3), 721-733. 

Teese, R., Van Doorn, G., & Gill, P. R. (2023). Prospective associations between traditional masculinity and cannabis, hard drug, and alcohol use in Australian emerging adult men. Personality and Individual Differences, 200, 111877. 

The Men’s Project, & Flood, M. (2018). The Man Box: A Study on Being a Young Man in Australia. Jesuit Social Services. 

The Men’s Project, & Flood, M. (2024). The Man Box 2024: Re-examining what it means to be a man in Australia.

Üzümçeker, E. (2025). Traditional Masculinity and Men's Psychological Help‐Seeking: A Meta‐Analysis. International Journal of Psychology, 60(2), e70031. 

Wong, Y. J., Ho, M.-H. R., Wang, S.-Y., & Miller, I. S. K. (2017). Meta-analyses of the relationship between conformity to masculine norms and mental health-related outcomes. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 64(1), 80-93. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000176

Yousaf, O., Grunfeld, E. A., & Hunter, M. S. (2015). A systematic review of the factors associated with delays in medical and psychological help-seeking among men. Health Psychol Rev, 9(2), 264-276. https://doi.org/10.1080/17437199.2013.840954

Zamboanga, B. L., Newins, A. R., Ford, K., & Perrotte, J. K. (2024). Conformity to masculine norms and its association with drinking behaviors and alcohol-related consequences among adult men: A meta-analysis. Social Science & Medicine, 359, 117198.