Men, masculinities, and environmental issues

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There is a growing body of research, advocacy, and activism making the links between patriarchy and the destruction of the environment, highlighting the role that social constructions of masculinity play in shaping our relationships with the natural world. 

The climate crisis

Climate change is gendered in both its causes and effects. There is substantial evidence that global heating is exacerbating gendered as well as other social inequities, with women (as well as other marginalised groups) tending to be worse hit by its effects. For instance, women’s livelihoods are often the first to be lost as a consequence of the climate crisis, worsening their economic position in society. Masculine norms and expectations also appear to be contributing significantly to climate change itself. On average, men tend to have larger carbon footprints than women (especially those who are wealthy, white, and in the Global North), and to express less concern about climate change, or willingness to change their behaviour. Men tend to engage less in recycling than women, for instance. They also appear to dominate climate change denialism. Meanwhile, women are frequently underrepresented in global climate change decision-making, connected to men’s dominance of institutions such as politics, business, science, and technology – described by Sherilyn MacGregor as the ‘masculinisation of environmentalism’.

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Disasters

The human-induced climate crisis is making ‘natural’ disasters and extreme weather events more common and intense. These are having devastating impacts on human communities, and women and other marginalised groups tend to be worse affected. For instance, research has found women are up to 14 times more likely than men to die in disasters. Men’s violence against women and children often intensifies in these contexts, including sexual violence and exploitation towards those who are displaced, and domestic and family violence as some men feel a greater need to exert coercive control. Compounding this is the domination of disaster responses by men. Men can also find it difficult to deal with the trauma and loss caused by disasters, in contrast to the heroic ‘saviour’ role they are expected to perform, and may turn to maladaptive coping strategies such as substance abuse.

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Industry

Many of the most environmentally damaging industries are male-dominated, such as fossil fuels, mining, the military, and ‘meat packing’. These sectors are also often renowned for having highly masculinised cultures, and high levels of sexual and domestic violence. Men’s involvement in such jobs is one reason why they can be more reluctant to embrace climate action, connected to what Martin Hultman, Paul Pulé, and Jonas Anshelm describe as men’s investment in ‘industrial breadwinner’ masculinities. Gender norms (such as pressures on men to be the ‘provider’) must therefore be taken into account as part of ‘just transitions’ to greener economies. By contrast, sectors where women are more likely to work, such as care and education, often already have low carbon emissions. It is also important to consider the dominance of (white, Western) men in the boardrooms of the most polluting companies, and the role that masculine norms may play in their sense of entitlement to endlessly exploit the environment. 

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Transport

Another reason for men’s higher carbon emissions compared to women’s is that they are more likely to drive cars, whilst women tend to more frequently walk and use public transport. Driving and flying are often associated with hegemonic masculinity – especially in large, fast vehicles. Cara Daggett has devised the concept of ‘petro-masculinity’ to describe how men’s identities are sometimes wrapped up in the conspicuous consumption of fossil fuels. Meanwhile, in many contexts men are more likely to cycle, and there can be a range of factors which can put women off doing so, including sexual harassment, which is also a widespread problem on public transport.

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  • Balkmar, D. (2019). Men on the move: Masculinities, (auto)mobility and car cultures. In L. Gottzén, U. Mellström, & T. Shefer (Eds.), Routledge international handbook of masculinity studies (pp. 351–359). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315165165
  • Goel, R., Oyebode, O., Foley, L., Tatah, L., Millett, C., & Woodcock, J. (2022). Gender differences in active travel in major cities across the world. Transportation, 50, 733–749. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11116-021-10259-4
  • Prati, G., Fraboni, F., De Angelis, M., Pietrantoni, L., Johnson, D., & Shires, J. (2019). Gender differences in cycling patterns and attitudes towards cycling in a sample of European regular cyclists. Journal of Transport Geography, 78, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2019.05.006

Non-human animals

Men are also less likely than women to be vegan or vegetarian. Eating meat, especially red meat, is in many cultures associated with strength and virility, whilst not doing so can be seen as emasculating, exemplified by epithets such as ‘soy boy’ (though it is notable that vegan food marketing is increasingly utilising masculine stereotypes to appeal to men). Dominating over non-human animals can be a way of ‘proving’ one’s masculinity, for example through hunting and blood sports. The abuse of companion animals is also a frequent feature of domestic and family violence. Eco-feminists have demonstrated links between the oppression of women and the oppression of non-human animals, with both often objectified for ‘consumption’, for example. Meanwhile, men are more likely to work in the meat and dairy industries, such as within abattoirs. Non-human animals are also treated in gendered ways by these industries; for instance, female cows are routinely sexually violated through artificial insemination, whilst ‘useless’ male chicks are usually killed soon after birth. 

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Masculinity and nature

It is thus often seen as ‘unmanly’ to care for the environment. This presents a major obstacle to tackling climate change, especially given that men continue to dominate positions of power in society. Eco-feminist theorists contend that this connects to the role of patriarchy in shaping Western industrial capitalism, in which masculinity is hierarchically associated with humanity, culture, and rationality, and femininity with animality, nature, and emotionality. These ideas underpin historical desires among (white, Western) men to ‘conquer’ and ‘own’ the land and exert dominance over the environment, and notions that men should be detached from nature and our own emotions. Some have therefore drawn attention to the links between ecocide and men’s violence. Even among men advocating for climate action, there can be a reluctance to reflect on these gendered ideals. Hultman and Pulé use the term ‘ecomodern masculinities’ to refer to men such as Elon Musk who emphasise technological solutions whilst shying away from deeper social change to address the climate crisis.

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The environmental movement

However, lots of men do challenge dominant masculine norms and expectations in relation to nature. For instance, many men are involved in the environmental, conservation, and animal liberation movements (although they appear to be smaller in number compared to women and LGBTQ+ people). Environmental activists are sometimes denigrated in emasculating ways, through terms such as ‘tree-huggers’. Gendered forms of abuse, including sexual violence, are also sometimes used by male-dominated police and paramilitary forces against women environmental activists. Growing eco-fascist groups, which bring far-right ideas together with environmentalism and emphasise issues such as over-population, are also highly masculinist. 

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Caring for the environment

The above issues illustrate the need to engage with men and boys about environmental issues such as the climate crisis and in changing our relationships with nature. This is a growing area of practice for work with men and boys. Several scholars have emphasised the need to develop what eco-feminists call an ‘ethic of care’ among men and boys, in which we cultivate equitable, interdependent relationships with the more-than-human world, as well as with the people in our lives. This highlights the importance of learning from rather than denigrating First Nations knowledge and activism. Hultman and Pulé have argued for the need to develop ‘ecological masculinities’ based upon our interconnections with other living things. Bob Pease has called for a pro-feminist environmentalism, and engaging with men about the emotional vulnerability we feel in relation to climate change and nature. It is clear that a gender-transformative approach is urgently needed to mitigate and adapt to the climate and ecological crises and address their root causes.

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