Men, masculinities, and environmental issues

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There is a growing body of research, advocacy, and activism making the links between patriarchy and harms against the environment and non-human animals, highlighting the role that social constructions of masculinity play in shaping our relationships with the natural world. 

The climate crisis

Climate change is gendered in both its causes and effects. There is substantial evidence that global heating is exacerbating gendered as well as other social inequities, with women (as well as other marginalised groups) worse hit by its effects. For instance, women’s livelihoods are often the first to be lost as a consequence of climate breakdown, weakening their economic position in society. Masculine norms expectations also appear to be contributing significantly to climate change itself. On average, men have larger carbon footprints than women (especially those who are wealthier, white, and in the Global North), due to factors such as eating red meat and driving more. They also express lower levels of concern about climate change or willingness to change their behaviour than women on average. Men tend to engage less in recycling than women, for instance. They also appear to be more likely to take up climate change denial. Meanwhile, women are frequently underrepresented in environmental decision-making, connected to men’s dominance of institutions such as politics, business, science, and technology – described by MacGregor as the ‘masculinisation of environmentalism’.

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Disasters

The human-induced climate crisis is making ‘natural’ disasters and extreme weather more common and intense. These are having devastating impacts on human communities, and women and other marginalised groups with fewer resources tend to be worse affected. Research suggests that natural disasters lower the life expectancy of women more than that of men (i.e., killing more women than men, and killing women at an earlier age than men), especially in countries where women’s socioeconomic status is lower; for example, because they are not taught skills such as swimming. Men’s violence against women and children often intensifies in these contexts, including sexual violence and exploitation towards those who are displaced, and domestic and family violence as some men feel a greater desire to exert coercive control. Compounding this is the domination of disaster response management by men. Men can also find it difficult to deal with the trauma and loss caused by disasters, in contrast to the heroic ‘saviour’ role they are expected to perform, and may turn to maladaptive coping strategies such as substance abuse.

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Industry

Many of the most environmentally damaging industries are male-dominated, such as fossil fuels, mining, the military, and meat packing. These sectors are often renowned for having highly masculinised cultures, and in some cases, high levels of sexual and domestic violence. Men’s involvement in such jobs is one reason why they can be more reluctant to embrace climate action, connected to what Hultman and Pulé describe as ‘industrial/breadwinner’ masculinities. Gender norms (such as pressures on men to be the ‘provider’) must therefore be taken into account as part of ‘just transitions’ to green economies. By contrast, sectors where women are more likely to work, such as care and education, often already have low carbon emissions. It is also important to consider the dominance of (white, Western) men in the boardrooms of the most polluting companies, and the role that masculine norms play in their sense of entitlement to endlessly exploit the environment. Male politicians may also dismiss environmental issues as a way of brandishing their ‘strongman’ credentials.

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Transport

One reason for men’s higher carbon emissions compared to women’s is that they are more likely to drive cars, whilst women tend to more frequently walk and use public transport. Driving is often associated with hegemonic masculinity – especially in large, fast vehicles (the same applies to flying, and sailing ‘superyachts’). Daggett devised the concept of ‘petro-masculinity’ to describe how men’s identities can be wrapped up in the conspicuous consumption of fossil fuels. That said, in many contexts men are also more likely to cycle; there can be a range of factors which can put women off doing so, such as sexual harassment.

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Non-human animals

Men are less likely than women to be vegan or vegetarian. Eating meat, especially red meat, is in many cultures associated with strength and virility, and refusing to do so can be seen as emasculating, exemplified by epithets such as ‘soy boy’. That said, plant-based food marketing is increasingly utilising masculine stereotypes to appeal to men. Dominating over non-human animals can be a way of ‘proving’ one’s masculinity, for example through hunting and blood sports. The abuse of companion animals is a frequent feature of domestic and family violence. Eco-feminists have demonstrated links between the oppression of women and the oppression of non-human animals, with both often objectified for ‘consumption’, for example. Men are more likely to work in the meat and dairy industries, such as within abattoirs. Non-human animals are also treated in gendered ways by these industries; for instance, female cows are routinely sexually violated through artificial insemination, whilst ‘useless’ male chicks are usually killed soon after birth. 

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Masculinity and nature

It is often seen as ‘unmanly’ to care for the environment. This presents a major obstacle to tackling issues such as climate change, especially given that men continue to dominate positions of power in society. Eco-feminist theorists contend that this connects to the interconnectedness of patriarchy and Western industrial capitalism, in which hierarchical dualisms associate masculinity with humanity, culture, and rationality, and femininity with animality, nature, and emotionality. This has led to (white, Western) men seeking to ‘conquer’ and ‘own’ the land, and notions that men should be detached from nature and their own emotions. Some have therefore drawn attention to the links between ecocide and men’s violence. Even among men advocating for climate action, there can be a reluctance to reflect on these gendered ideals; Hultman and Pulé use the term ‘ecomodern masculinities’ to refer to those emphasising technological solutions whilst shying away from deeper social change.

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The environmental movement

However, lots of men do challenge dominant masculine expectations in relation to nature. For instance, many men are involved in the environmental, conservation, and animal liberation movements (although they are typically smaller in number compared to women and LGBTQ+ people). It is notable that environmental activists are often disparaged in gendered ways, through terms such as ‘tree-huggers’. However, patriarchal norms and inequalities can also manifest within these movements. Gendered forms of abuse, including sexual violence, are also sometimes used by male-dominated police and paramilitary forces against women environmental activists. Meanwhile, there has been a growth in masculinist eco-fascist groups, which bring far-right ideas together with environmentalism and emphasise issues such as over-population.

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Caring for the environment

These issues illustrate the need to engage with men and boys about environmental issues such as the climate crisis and changing our relationships with nature. This is a growing area of practice for work with men and boys, and should be addressed more within environmental education. Several eco-feminist scholars have emphasised the need to develop an ‘ethic of care’ among men and boys, to cultivate equitable, interdependent relationships with the more-than-human world, as well as with other people. There are overlaps here with First Nations peoples’ ways of seeing the world and their relationship with it. Hultman and Pulé have argued for the need to develop ‘ecological masculinities’ based upon our interconnections with other living things. Pease has called for pro-feminist environmentalism, and engaging with men about the emotional vulnerability we feel in relation to climate change and nature. It is clear that gender-transformative approaches are urgently needed to mitigate and adapt to the climate and ecological crises and address their root causes.

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