Contents
- The climate crisis
- Disasters
- Industry
- Transport
- Non-human animals
- Masculinity and nature
- The environmental movement
- Caring for the environment
There is a growing body of research, advocacy, and activism making the links between patriarchy and harms against the environment and non-human animals, highlighting the role that social constructions of masculinity play in shaping our relationships with the natural world.
The climate crisis
Climate change is gendered in both its causes and effects. There is substantial evidence that global heating is exacerbating gendered as well as other social inequities, with women (as well as other marginalised groups) worse hit by its effects. For instance, women’s livelihoods are often the first to be lost as a consequence of climate breakdown, weakening their economic position in society. Masculine norms expectations also appear to be contributing significantly to climate change itself. On average, men have larger carbon footprints than women (especially those who are wealthier, white, and in the Global North), due to factors such as eating red meat and driving more. They also express lower levels of concern about climate change or willingness to change their behaviour than women on average. Men tend to engage less in recycling than women, for instance. They also appear to be more likely to take up climate change denial. Meanwhile, women are frequently underrepresented in environmental decision-making, connected to men’s dominance of institutions such as politics, business, science, and technology – described by MacGregor as the ‘masculinisation of environmentalism’.
Resources:
- Burrell, S.R., & Pedersen, C. (2024, 3rd December). It’s time to recognise the role masculinity is playing in the climate crisis. Pursuit. https://pursuit.unimelb.edu.au/articles/its-time-to-recognise-the-role-masculinity-is-playing-in-the-climate-crisis
- Canada’s National Observer (2023, 7th March). White men are the super spreaders of climate denialism. https://www.nationalobserver.com/2023/03/07/news/white-men-super-spreaders-climate-denialism
- The Guardian (2020, 6th February). The eco gender gap: Why is saving the planet seen as women’s work?. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/feb/06/eco-gender-gap-why-saving-planet-seen-womens-work
- Kato-Wallace, J. (2016). Men, masculinities and climate change: A discussion paper. MenEngage Alliance. https://menengage.org/resources/men-masculinities-and-climate-change-a-discussion-paper/
- ODI Global (2024, 21st November). Protecting hard-won rights: Gender and climate action at COP29. https://odi.org/en/insights/protecting-hard-won-rights-gender-climate-action-at-cop29/
- United Nations (2024, 4th April). Why women are key to climate action. https://www.un.org/en/climatechange/science/climate-issues/women
Disasters
The human-induced climate crisis is making ‘natural’ disasters and extreme weather more common and intense. These are having devastating impacts on human communities, and women and other marginalised groups with fewer resources tend to be worse affected. Research suggests that natural disasters lower the life expectancy of women more than that of men (i.e., killing more women than men, and killing women at an earlier age than men), especially in countries where women’s socioeconomic status is lower; for example, because they are not taught skills such as swimming. Men’s violence against women and children often intensifies in these contexts, including sexual violence and exploitation towards those who are displaced, and domestic and family violence as some men feel a greater desire to exert coercive control. Compounding this is the domination of disaster response management by men. Men can also find it difficult to deal with the trauma and loss caused by disasters, in contrast to the heroic ‘saviour’ role they are expected to perform, and may turn to maladaptive coping strategies such as substance abuse.
Resources:
- Enarson, E., & Pease, B. (Eds.) (2016). Men, masculinities and disaster. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315678122
- Le Masson, V., Lim, S., Budimir, M., & Podboj, J.S. (2016). Disasters and violence against women and girls: Can disasters shake social norms and power relations? ODI. https://odi.org/en/publications/disasters-and-violence-against-women-and-girls-can-disasters-shake-social-norms-and-power-relations/
- McKinnon, S. (2022). Masculinities and disaster. Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Natural Hazard Science. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389407.013.387
- Myrttinen, H. (2023). Men, masculinities and humanitarian settings: A mapping of the state of research and practice-based evidence. UN Women. https://www.unwomen.org/en/digital-library/publications/2023/08/men-masculinities-and-humanitarian-settings
Industry
Many of the most environmentally damaging industries are male-dominated, such as fossil fuels, mining, the military, and meat packing. These sectors are often renowned for having highly masculinised cultures, and in some cases, high levels of sexual and domestic violence. Men’s involvement in such jobs is one reason why they can be more reluctant to embrace climate action, connected to what Hultman and Pulé describe as ‘industrial/breadwinner’ masculinities. Gender norms (such as pressures on men to be the ‘provider’) must therefore be taken into account as part of ‘just transitions’ to green economies. By contrast, sectors where women are more likely to work, such as care and education, often already have low carbon emissions. It is also important to consider the dominance of (white, Western) men in the boardrooms of the most polluting companies, and the role that masculine norms play in their sense of entitlement to endlessly exploit the environment. Male politicians may also dismiss environmental issues as a way of brandishing their ‘strongman’ credentials.
Resources:
- MacGregor, S., Arora-Jonsson, S., & Cohen, M. (2022). Caring in a changing climate: Centering care work in climate action. Oxfam. https://www.oxfamamerica.org/explore/research-publications/caring-in-a-changing-climate/
- Mackenzie, M. (2019, 15th December). Is fragile masculinity the biggest obstacle to climate action? ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-12-15/is-fragile-masculinity-the-biggest-obstacle-to-climate-action/11797210
- Next Gen Men (21st April 2020). Masculinity and climate justice in Alberta. https://www.nextgenmen.ca/blog/masculinity-and-climate-justice-in-alberta
- Novello, A. (2021). Building narratives for a caring green economy. Feminist Green New Deal Coalition. https://feministgreennewdeal.com/2021/09/21/building-narratives-for-a-caring-green-economy/
Transport
One reason for men’s higher carbon emissions compared to women’s is that they are more likely to drive cars, whilst women tend to more frequently walk and use public transport. Driving is often associated with hegemonic masculinity – especially in large, fast vehicles (the same applies to flying, and sailing ‘superyachts’). Daggett devised the concept of ‘petro-masculinity’ to describe how men’s identities can be wrapped up in the conspicuous consumption of fossil fuels. That said, in many contexts men are also more likely to cycle; there can be a range of factors which can put women off doing so, such as sexual harassment.
Resources:
- The Guardian (2025, 14th May). Car use and meat consumption drive emissions gender gap, research suggests. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2025/may/14/car-use-and-meat-consumption-drive-emissions-gender-gap-research-suggests
- Politico (2022, 5th October). Men and their cars: Cities aim to break up the love affair. https://www.politico.eu/article/men-love-cars-masculinity-cities-net-zero-pollution-climate-change-sustainable-mobility-brussels-umea/
- Oyebode, O., & Goel, R. (2022, 3rd February). From walking to cycling, how we get around a city is a gender equality issue – new research. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/from-walking-to-cycling-how-we-get-around-a-city-is-a-gender-equality-issue-new-research-175014
United Nations in Western Europe (2024, 7th March). Addressing the gender gap in cycling. https://unric.org/en/addressing-the-gender-gap-in-cycling/
Non-human animals
Men are less likely than women to be vegan or vegetarian. Eating meat, especially red meat, is in many cultures associated with strength and virility, and refusing to do so can be seen as emasculating, exemplified by epithets such as ‘soy boy’. That said, plant-based food marketing is increasingly utilising masculine stereotypes to appeal to men. Dominating over non-human animals can be a way of ‘proving’ one’s masculinity, for example through hunting and blood sports. The abuse of companion animals is a frequent feature of domestic and family violence. Eco-feminists have demonstrated links between the oppression of women and the oppression of non-human animals, with both often objectified for ‘consumption’, for example. Men are more likely to work in the meat and dairy industries, such as within abattoirs. Non-human animals are also treated in gendered ways by these industries; for instance, female cows are routinely sexually violated through artificial insemination, whilst ‘useless’ male chicks are usually killed soon after birth.
Resources:
- Aavik, K. (2024). Contesting anthropocentric masculinities through veganism: Lived experiences of vegan men. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-19507-5
- Adams, C.J. (1990). The sexual politics of meat: A feminist-vegetarian critical theory. Bloomsbury Publishing. https://caroljadams.com/spom-the-book
- Green Queen (2025, 9th May). Meat, masculinity and the Manosphere: How misinformation is driving young men towards beef. https://www.greenqueen.com.hk/meat-masculinity-manosphere-young-men-beef-consumption/
- Hunnicutt, G. (2020). Gender violence in ecofeminist perspective: Intersections of animal oppression, patriarchy and domination of the Earth. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351026222
- Hubbub (2025). High steaks: How young men are beefing up their diets. https://hubbub.org.uk/young-men-and-meat
- The Guardian (2022). Meet the ‘vegan bros’ here to bust the myth that real men eat meat. https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2022/mar/05/vegan-bros-busting-myth-that-real-men-eat-meat
Now and Men podcast (2023, 7th June). ‘Masculinity, meat-eating, and vegan men - Dr Kadri Aavik’. https://now-and-men.captivate.fm/episode/veganism
Masculinity and nature
It is often seen as ‘unmanly’ to care for the environment. This presents a major obstacle to tackling issues such as climate change, especially given that men continue to dominate positions of power in society. Eco-feminist theorists contend that this connects to the interconnectedness of patriarchy and Western industrial capitalism, in which hierarchical dualisms associate masculinity with humanity, culture, and rationality, and femininity with animality, nature, and emotionality. This has led to (white, Western) men seeking to ‘conquer’ and ‘own’ the land, and notions that men should be detached from nature and their own emotions. Some have therefore drawn attention to the links between ecocide and men’s violence. Even among men advocating for climate action, there can be a reluctance to reflect on these gendered ideals; Hultman and Pulé use the term ‘ecomodern masculinities’ to refer to those emphasising technological solutions whilst shying away from deeper social change.
Resources:
- MacGregor, S., & Seymour, S. (Eds.) (2017). Men and nature: Hegemonic masculinities and environmental change. RCC Perspectives: Transformations in Environment and Society, 4. https://doi.org/10.5282/rcc/7977
- Mies, M., & Shiva, V. (2014). Ecofeminism (2nd ed.). Zed Books. https://www.bloomsbury.com/au/ecofeminism-9781350379886/
- Now and Men podcast (2025, 21 January). ‘Masculinity and Caring for Nature...and Reviewing Past Episodes - with Dr Cassie Pedersen’. https://nowandmen.net/episode/care-for-nature
- Plumwood, V. (1993). Feminism and the mastery of nature. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203006757
- Pulé, P.M., & Hultman, M. (Eds.) (2021). Men, masculinities, and earth: Contending with the (m)anthropocene. Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-54486-7
The environmental movement
However, lots of men do challenge dominant masculine expectations in relation to nature. For instance, many men are involved in the environmental, conservation, and animal liberation movements (although they are typically smaller in number compared to women and LGBTQ+ people). It is notable that environmental activists are often disparaged in gendered ways, through terms such as ‘tree-huggers’. However, patriarchal norms and inequalities can also manifest within these movements. Gendered forms of abuse, including sexual violence, are also sometimes used by male-dominated police and paramilitary forces against women environmental activists. Meanwhile, there has been a growth in masculinist eco-fascist groups, which bring far-right ideas together with environmentalism and emphasise issues such as over-population.
Resources:
- Castañeda Camey, I., Sabater, L., Owren, C., & Boyer, A.E. (2020). Gender-based violence and environment linkages: The violence of inequality. IUCN. https://www.iucn.org/resources/publication/gender-based-violence-and-environment-linkages
- The Economist (2025, 29th January). The rise of the Net-Zero Dad. https://www.economist.com/britain/2025/01/29/the-rise-of-the-net-zero-dad
- Li, W., & Seager, J. (2023, 9th February). In wildlife conservation, gender equality brings win-win returns. World Bank Blogs. https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/climatechange/wildlife-conservation-gender-equality-brings-win-win-returns
- Nelson, C., & Vertigan, M. (2019, 30th September). Misogyny, male rage and the words men use to describe Greta Thunberg. The Conversation. https://theconversation.com/misogyny-male-rage-and-the-words-men-use-to-describe-greta-thunberg-124347
Caring for the environment
These issues illustrate the need to engage with men and boys about environmental issues such as the climate crisis and changing our relationships with nature. This is a growing area of practice for work with men and boys, and should be addressed more within environmental education. Several eco-feminist scholars have emphasised the need to develop an ‘ethic of care’ among men and boys, to cultivate equitable, interdependent relationships with the more-than-human world, as well as with other people. There are overlaps here with First Nations peoples’ ways of seeing the world and their relationship with it. Hultman and Pulé have argued for the need to develop ‘ecological masculinities’ based upon our interconnections with other living things. Pease has called for pro-feminist environmentalism, and engaging with men about the emotional vulnerability we feel in relation to climate change and nature. It is clear that gender-transformative approaches are urgently needed to mitigate and adapt to the climate and ecological crises and address their root causes.
Resources:
- Hultman, M., & Pulé, P.M. (2018). Ecological masculinities: Theoretical foundations and practical guidance. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315195223
- MenEngage Climate Justice Working Group. https://menengage.org/our-work/climate-justice/
- MÄN (2020). Men in the climate crisis – A guide for reflective groups among men. https://mfj.se/en/resources/learn-more/climate-crisis-and-gender
- Now and Men podcast (2021, 8th December). ‘Masculinities, climate change, and men’s relationships with nature - Prof Bob Pease’. https://now-and-men.captivate.fm/episode/climate-change
- Pease, B. (2019). Facing patriarchy: From a violent gender order to a culture of peace. Zed Books. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781350220027